Somaliland Central

 Cropping practices

Sorghum and maize are the major rainfed crops grown in Marodijeh and Gabiley (M&G) regions of Somaliland. Sorghum cultivation in the two regions dates back to the 1920s when pioneer farmers in this area began sowing sorghum with the use of oxen drawn wooden ploughs (Abdullahi, 2014). 

Farmers broadcast seed of both sorghum and maize and cover the seed by passing tractor-drawn disk plows over the seed. Very few farmers till the soil before planting the crops. This method of planting results in variable depth of seed placement, gabs in germination, uneven seedling emergence, irregular plant spacing, and variable plant populations. Farmers do not treat the seed with any fungicides or insecticides before planting. They broadcast seed because they cannot afford to carry out secondary tillage by using cultivators or disk harrows. Additionally, secondary tillage implements are not readily available even for those who can afford it. Moreover, the cost of production increases significantly with implementation of secondary tillage (Abdullahi, 2014).

Elmi-Jama is the major sorghum variety grown in the M&G. This late-maturing, tall variety, takes six months from planting to harvesting. Farmers also plant a shorter variety known as Adan-Gaab which matures in four months. Occasionally farmers plant early maturing sorghum varieties (three months to maturity) imported from southern Somalia. However, Elmi-Jama remains the most preferred sorghum variety in the M&G because of its remarkable tolerance to drought and quality grain as well as its large stover production for animal feeding during the dry season. Maize varieties grown are all open-pollinated yellow maize and include Adday, Assay, and Daba-ka-dhala. Most of M&G grain famers consume their grain production, and only sell the surplus, usually in good years.

Sorghum and maize are mostly planted during the commencement of the rainy season in April. A second planting is implemented in August-September for early maturing sorghum varieties e.g. Adan-gaab (Abdullahi, 2014).On average, less than two hectares of sorghum are planted per farmer per year in rainfed farms and less for maize. Cowpea is not intercropped with sorghum and maize but is planted as sole crop with method of planting similar to that of sorghum. Cowpea beans are used as food and the plant biomass is grazed by animals after harvesting the pods. Sesame is also broadcast planted but few farmers grow this crop as it is a new introduction to the M&G. In all villages in the study area, vegetables and fruits are also grown either as rainfed and/or irrigated with water from shallow wells, dams, and occasionally berkeds. Production of vegetables and fruits in the M&G regions has increased for the last two decades, and significantly improved crop diversification. These crops provide quick cash to rural households, and improve nutrition for household members. Vegetables grown in the study area include tomatoes. onions, pepper, lettuce, beetroot, carrots, and parsnip, while fruits include oranges, lemon, mandarin, guava, mango, and papaya.

                                                                               Agricultural production

Agro-pastoralism

 Agro-pastoralist communities are found mainly in areas where conditions are favourable for crop production and for raising cattle as primary stock. Broadly speaking these communities have moved one step away from transhumant animal husbandry towards cultivation and permanent settlement. Nevertheless, it would be inaccurate to label Somaliland’s agro-pastoralists as some analysts do simply as farmers, or as farmers in the making. Particularly in drier areas, many prefer to describe themselves as livestock producers who supplement their income with crop production. Contrary to the conventional wisdom, the importance assigned by many agro-pastoralists to animal husbandry has not decreased relative to cultivation; in recent years, it has instead strengthened, especially during the periods of war and civil strife. In the view of an agro-pastoralist from Ijaara, in Gabiley district: “We no longer view crop production as a worthwhile economic activity: livestock is our main livelihood. When we sell the neef (head of livestock), only then are we able to plough our farms with the livestock proceeds. During the civil war, we were able to take our herds with us, but we weren’t able to take our farms.”

In addition to the disruption of sedentary cultivation during the prolonged civil conflict, other trends in the post-war period have helped to reinforce the emphasis of agro-pastoralists on livestock herding. Rain-fed farming activities have been in decline for several decades, and some of the most productive pre-war farming areas are today nearly barren. Even before the civil war, the popularity of rain-fed farming was held in check by the “Scientific Socialist” agricultural policy of the Barre’s regime, which eliminated individual incentives for farmers and thus sapped their motivation. Farm produce was appropriated by the notorious Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC), or pooled in co-operative schemes. One popular jibe among farmers mocked the predatory nature of the scheme, noting that “birds and the ADC only show up at harvest time.” Following the 1977 Somali-Ethiopian war and the subsequent escalation of the civil war in 1988, relief food supplies to the refugee camps limited the marketability of any local produce – notably sorghum and maize. These patterns continued for some time even after the war’s end, since refugee rations continued to enter Somaliland from the refugee camps in Ethiopia. Over roughly the same period, many Somalilanders acquired new tastes, becoming accustomed to products encountered during their refugee experience, or while in southern Somalia. Demand for sorghum and maize declined, while wheat and beans became more popular.

Since the end of the war, agro-pastoralists in drier areas have generally favoured animal husbandry over the revival of cultivation. The commercialisation of the livestock sector and the earning power of the seylad made farming a less attractive occupation. “Many people in the agricultural sector became involved in livestock market transactions, earning more with less time and effort, compared with laborious agricultural work,” explains an elder-businessman from Gabiley.

In areas of greater rainfall, the importance of animal husbandry to agropastoralists has declined in relation to their agricultural activities. For farmers in such areas, crops have superseded animal husbandry as the primary mode of production. Their livestock is often limited to a few oxen or camels who are used for ploughing (sometimes in tandem with a donkey), as well as cattle and goats who provide milk and a marketable surplus. The agricultural practices of such farmers remain relatively simple, using single pointed shafts for ploughing, and neglecting the potential advantages of fertilizer and extension work. Paradoxically, one development commonly cited as a negative influence upon rain-fed farming has been the exchange of the traditional ox-plough for mechanized farming. Farmers complain that use of hired tractors increases their input costs, reduces flexibility in planting time and, in certain areas, diminishes the spirit of Guus, a traditionally voluntary, collective effort among farmers in ploughing, sowing, weeding and harvesting.

Farmers who still depend upon manual labour complain that they face a labour shortage, since local youth see no future in farming and gravitate instead to the urban centres, looking for employment. Together, these factors seem to have led agro-pastoralists to look more towards their herds than to their crops as they recover from the upheaval of the war years.

Irrigated Farming

Unlike rain-fed farming, irrigated farming in Somaliland has increased substantially over the last two decades. In Woqooyi Galbeed and Awdal regions, “Tog farming” along the banks of dry riverbeds and perennial springs is the most common type of irrigation agriculture, producing fruits and vegetables. Some tog farmers use reservoirs for harvesting rainwater and run-off water for irrigation. Others dig shallow wells along the tog banks or sink wells, raised and reinforced with concrete, in the middle of the tog. In both cases water pumps bring the water to the crops. In Sanaag, and to a lesser extent in Saaxil, gravity irrigation from natural springs is more widely used. One of the most remarkable irrigated farming communities is Allay Baday, south west of Hargeysa. Once a major seylad, Allay Baday’s declining fortunes were reversed when a young entrepreneur started a vegetable farm around his father’s reservoir, using a one piston machine to water his experimental onion, tomato, papaya, cabbage and other vegetable plantings. His success encouraged others to tap into Allay Baday’s vast water resources, which are today collected in over sixty reservoirs, transforming the settlement into a major supplier to the fruit and vegetable markets of Somaliland. Allay Baday’s produce has earned a share of the large Hargeysa market, and is now being exported to Jigjiga (across the border in Ethiopia). Entrepreneurs from Allay Baday are also exploring possibilities of expanding to the Gulf markets.

Allay Baday’s high quality produce, aggressive marketing strategy, and co-operative methods have created something of a success story, but the example has not been replicated elsewhere. A number of factors appear to prevent other communities – including border villages in the same area – from following the same path. One disincentive is the stiff competition from Ethiopian and Yemeni products – mainly tomatoes, papaya and greens, which are dumped into local markets, regardless of demand. Another problem, mainly in eastern Somaliland, is the availability of skilled and affordable labour. Farmers in the west have access to skilled and relatively cheap labour from Ethiopia. Elsewhere, farmers are obliged to seek labour from among Somaliland’s army of unemployed youth, who typically demand higher pay in order to earn enough money to purchase a daily mijin (bundle of qaad) in addition to their subsistence needs. Irrigation farmers complain that excessive government controls reduce the sector’s profitability. Their produce is subject to local government taxes and they are required to submit their goods to municipalities for inspection before transporting them to markets in the urban centres. These taxes, they claim, are arbitrarily levied and frequently inflated by local government officials. Opportunities to improve the viability of irrigated farming do exist. Many farmers recognize the need to develop their technological base as well as their knowledge of preservation techniques. Simple processing and canning procedures could give added value to produce and open access to the markets of the Gulf countries and neighbouring Djibouti, but for the moment they are not in use.

Frankincense

Frankincense has traditionally been one of Somaliland’s major export activities, but today the sector is in a state of neglect. Most of the frankincense production takes place in Sanaag region, in the highland forests of the Gollis range. Trade was disrupted during the civil war, though export has gradually resumed and now takes place on a scale comparable to pre-war levels. Since production privatise and exports are no longer regulated, some are concerned that trees are being tapped excessively. Some frankincense traders, however, claim that production has still not recovered. “Frankincense was the second most important economic activity in our region,” says one frankincense dealer. There were 2013 farms, but only about 200 of them are operating now, because people don’t have the resources.  Today there is much competition market, and since there is no control, everyone has to take his product to the Arab countries through Berbera, taking his chances.

Agriculture in Somaliland

One of main agricultural zones in Somaliland is located in the North-western part of Awdal region and Gabiley region. However, farmers are also cultivating in Odweyne, Burao and Berbera district along Somaliland; most of them depending on irrigation systems. Gabiley and Awdal are the main areas for rain-fed production. The agricultural systems in all villages are a combination of maize and sorghum with cash crops (fruits and vegetables) and livestock herding (camels and sheep). One of the main cash crop in Somaliland is watermelon. Farmers also produce various vegetables, such us tomatoes, onions, paprika, green chillies, potatoes, okra, parsley, which are minor cash crops sold in local markets. Crop production in Somaliland is determined by bi-modal rainfall. In most of the villages land is mainly communal (70%) vs 30% private. The process of privatisation of land is accelerating in recent years (Ministry of Agriculture and partners, personal communications).

The two main agricultural seasons in Somaliland are: Gu (rainy season) from April to June and Dayr (Autumn) from September to October-November; the amount of rain during Dayr is not good enough; most farmers need irrigation during Dayr Season. Summer time or Xagaa Season is from June-July and Jiilaal “dry winter season” from December to March. Jiilaal is the hardest Season of the year. Therefore, it is recognised as the season of uncertainty and desperation for many Somalis; while Gu is considered the season of abundance of milk, meat and good crops.

Conclusions and recommendations

• Community seed banks are highly needed in Somaliland, both to strengthen seed security and to break Somali farmers ‘dependency on imported and poor quality seeds. CSB can play an important role in recovering seeds of local landraces and in securing enough quantities of good quality seeds to Somali farmers.
• JSL Gov support: 100s villages of Gabiley region need concrete technical support on seed management in years to come.
• Increase diversity on famer fields: it is urgent to increase diversity of local landraces and varieties of main food crops, as well as, of new drought tolerant varieties. It also important to recover locally adapted varieties of main cash crops. Together with farmers’ willingness to experiment can contribute to this goal by teaching them irrigation technics and latest technology commercial farming
• Capacity building: Organizations in Somaliland need special capacity building for their field staff regarding community-based seed management. As part of capacity building both exchange visits and training seminars should be provided to partners in Somaliland.

Therefore, it is recommended to carry out the following capacity building activities:

• Training seminar on community based agrobiodiversity management for technical staff from Somaliland. If possible, pull resource persons from other places to get a good training: concretely those with good experience working with maize-and sorghum among farmer groups.
• Collaboration with Agricultural Extension Department in Somaliland and FAO: Agriculture extension services in Somaliland need better knowledge about local seed systems and community-based Biodiversity management. For partners in Somaliland, these are relevant stakeholders to engage in trainings and seminars.

                                                                Specific Recommendations

Agro-pastoral production systems

The following recommendations are made to reduce or alleviate the problems haunting the sector and hampering its progress:

o Farmers be encouraged in using animal traction for cultivation rather than depending on the expensive and less available tractors. The advantage of animal traction use is that whenever it rains the farmer will immediately plough his/her land while it takes him/her some time to get tractor causing him/her to miss number of rainy days. The other advantage of oxen plowing is that it costs less. Also improvements on the traditional ploughs are necessary in order to increase the cultivable area. Currently an area plowed in one hour by tractor takes ten hours for oxen.

o Public awareness on the consumption of local foods and improvement of their processing technique is deemed necessary in order make them easier to cook and ultimately contribute to the increase of food production.

o Agro-pastoralists be encouraged to practice agro-forestry by growing leguminous trees such as leucaena along the borders of their fields and grow crops in the middle. This will have the following advantages:

• The trees will act as windbreak and help reduce sheet erosion
• Leucaena is a nutritive feed for animals and will also increase soil fertility due to its nitrogen fixation capabilities.

• It could also be used as firewood.

o Farmers be provided with appropriate and proper tools for rehabilitating the existed bunded areas. Rehabilitation of the old canals and construction of new ones, in the spate-irrigated areas of Togdheer will assist in boosting crop production and reduction of the food insecurity situation prevailing in the area.

o Farmers to adopt crop diversification approaches i.e. growing sorghum, sesame, cowpea, chickpea and beekeeping, rather than depending than a single crop.

o Farmers’ training on proper agronomic practices be intensified on the intention of improving the technical know-how of the communities involved in farming.

o As soil erosion is a major cause of the on-going environmental degradation, mainly resulting from deforestation, poor soil permeability, unsound cultivation practices in sloppy areas and with water retention structures destroyed and the loss of grass cover due to recurrent droughts and grazing pressure, it is recommended that a comprehensive watershed management programmes be carried out in the most affected fragile rain fed areas.